Armenia has a long and detailed history that starts in prehistoric times and continues to the present. Over thousands of years, Armenians have shown strength, creativity, and the ability to adapt during both difficult and successful periods. From early settlers in the Armenian Highlands to gaining modern independence, Armenian history highlights the lasting character and special culture of its people. In this article, we walk through the main stages of Armenian civilization, looking at important dynasties and events that have shaped its story.
Armenian civilization timeline: main periods and dynasties
Prehistoric origins and early settlements
The roots of Armenian civilization start far back in prehistory. Stone tools found in Armenia point to human activity as early as 325,000 years ago. The Armenian Highland was home to early communities during the Neolithic period. Discoveries at the Areni-1 cave show evidence of early settlements through items like the oldest known leather shoe (from 3,500 BC), a straw skirt (from 3,900 BC), and an ancient wine-making site (from 4,000 BC). These finds give us a glimpse into the resourceful lives of early Armenians.
Other important early cultures include the Shulaveri-Shomu (6000-4000 BC) and the Kura-Araxes (4000-2200 BC) cultures. The legendary ancestor, Hayk, is said to have founded the Armenian nation in the Ararat region around 2300 BC. Around the same period, ancient Akkadian records mention “Armani,” which may also point to early Armenians. These archaeological sites and national legends together show deep Armenian ties to the region.
Bronze Age: shaping early Armenian culture
In the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, the Armenian Highlands saw the rise of several influential groups. States like the Hittite Empire, Mitanni, and Hayasa-Azzi contributed to the development of Armenian identity. The Trialeti-Vanadzor culture (2200-1600 BC), which reached across Armenia, Georgia, and Turkey, may have been among the first Indo-European groups in the area. Other cultures in the Aragats and Lake Sevan regions also added to a lively and growing cultural setting.
It is possible that the name “Armenia” comes from this period, related to names like “Armanî” or “Armânum” in Akkadian writings. Later, the Nairi tribes (1400-1000 BC) formed a major alliance, preparing the way for the rise of early states in the Iron Age.
Iron Age: Urartu and early states
In the Iron Age, the powerful Kingdom of Urartu appeared, beginning in the 9th century BC and lasting until 585 BC. Aramé founded Urartu in 860 BC, bringing together various tribes in the Armenian Highlands. Urartu’s main opponent was the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Famous kings like Sarduri I (834-828 BC) built the capital Tushpa (now Van), and Menuas (810-785 BC) expanded the kingdom’s land towards the Ararat area.
A milestone came with the building of the Erebuni fortress (now Yerevan) in 782 BC by King Argishti I. Urartu influenced later Armenian culture with its large fortresses and written records. After Urartu’s fall to the Medes in 585 BC, the Orontid dynasty started out as Persian-appointed governors before later ruling independently.
Classical times: Orontid, Artaxiad, and Arsacid dynasties
The Orontid dynasty ruled from 585-190 BC, first under the Persian Empire and then as independent rulers. Zoroastrianism became widely practiced in Armenia during this period.
The Artaxiad dynasty was founded in 190 BC by Artaxias I. Under Tigranes the Great (95-55 BC), Armenia became an empire stretching across parts of the Caucasus, present-day Turkey, and beyond, nearly matching Rome in power. Following a Roman victory in 69 BC, Armenia remained an ally rather than a province of Rome.
In the 1st century AD, members of the Parthian Arsacid family took the Armenian throne. In 301 AD, King Tiridates III made Christianity the state religion, making Armenia the first nation to do so. This important change set Armenia on a new path, though foreign invasions led to the end of the Arsacid dynasty in 428 AD and Persian control over Armenia.
Middle Ages: Bagratid Armenia, Cilician Kingdom, and foreign rule
Throughout the Middle Ages, Armenia was often under foreign rule but also had times of independence. After centuries under the Byzantines, Persians, and Islamic powers, the Bagratid kingdom restored Armenian self-rule in the 9th century, with Ashot I Bagratuni crowned king in 885 AD. Ani became the capital in 961 AD and was known for its many churches.
Invasions by the Seljuk Turks began in 1016 AD, and by 1045 Armenia was taken by Byzantine forces. After the Seljuks overran Ani in 1064 AD, Armenians established the Cilician Kingdom in what is now southern Turkey. This kingdom lasted until 1375 AD when the Mameluks of Egypt conquered it. Later, Armenia suffered invasions by Tamerlane and others, greatly hurting the population and putting Armenia under foreign rule for many years.
Early modern period: Persian and Ottoman domination
From the 16th century, Armenia was fought over by the Ottoman and Safavid Persian empires. The Peace of Amasya in 1555 split Armenia: the Ottomans controlled the west and Persia the east. Both sides fought over the land, with regions like Yerevan being repeatedly taken and lost. In the early 1600s, Shah Abbas I deported over 300,000 Armenians from their homes to Persia, causing great suffering. The Treaty of Zuhab (1639) made this division permanent. Though often ruled by outsiders, Armenians kept their culture alive through their church, literature, and early books.
Modern era: Russian control, genocide, and new independence
In the 19th century, Russia became the new ruling power in Eastern Armenia after wars with Persia. Armenian life under Russian rule was more secure than under the Ottomans, though not problem-free. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Armenians in Ottoman lands faced massacres. This led up to the Armenian Genocide (1915-1923), during which 1.5 million Armenians died or were expelled. The survivors settled around the world.
Armenia briefly became independent in 1918, but the First Republic lasted only two years before the Soviets took control. As part of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1991, Armenians experienced both industrial growth and limits on cultural expression. Protests in 1965 showed Armenian resistance and remembrance of their past. Armenia declared independence from the Soviet Union on September 21, 1991. Since then, it has faced conflicts like the Nagorno-Karabakh wars and has worked on building its institutions and global partnerships.
Chronology: Main events in Armenian civilization
12,000 BC and Neolithic cultures
Armenia’s story starts in deep prehistory, with petroglyphs at Ughtasar made about 12,000 BC. In the Neolithic age, sites like Areni-1 cave show organized settlements (as early as 4300 BC). Other settlements such as Godedzor (4000 BC) and Shengavit (3000-2500 BC) along with cultures like Shulaveri-Shomu and Kura-Araxes mark ongoing growth of human activity and culture, forming the roots of Armenian identity.
Bronze Age: 3rd-2nd millennium BC
This era saw the growth of distinct Armenian culture and legends. The mythic Battle at Hoşap River around 2492 BC and the story of Noah’s Ark landing in Ararat (ca. 2400 BC) are central to Armenian tradition. Hayk, the culture hero, is said to have founded the Armenian nation in 2300 BC. Important figures from history, such as Artatama and Artashumara, appear from the 15th century BC onward. Around 1200 BC, the Nairi tribes formed a loose alliance, leading towards more unified states in later centuries.
Urartu: 9th-6th centuries BC
The Kingdom of Urartu, created by Aramé in 860 BC, became a strong force in the region. Sarduri I made Tushpa (Van) the capital, and Menuas (810-785 BC) grew Urartu even further. Argishtis I built Erebuni fortress (Yerevan) in 782 BC. Urartu ended in 585 BC after being defeated by the Medes, which led to the next stage of Armenian statehood.
Orontid dynasty: 6th-3rd centuries BC
After Urartu, the Orontid dynasty (570-200 BC) ruled Armenia. At first, they were under Persian control but gained independence after Alexander the Great defeated Persia. The Orontids kept the Armenian name in use and began to build independent Armenian rule until the Artaxiad dynasty took over in 200 BC.
Artaxiad dynasty and Greater Armenia: 2nd-1st century BC
Artaxias I took back Armenian independence in 190 BC and made Artaxata the new capital. Tigranes the Great (ruling from 95 BC) expanded Armenia into a true empire. His campaigns brought Armenia into conflict with Rome but also to its greatest territorial height. Tigranes secured peace with Rome and the Armenian kingdom continued until the rise of the Arsacid dynasty.
Roman and Persian Armenia: 1st BC – 4th century AD
Power in Armenia passed between Rome and Persia. The Arsacid dynasty of Parthia took charge, striking agreements with Rome to share influence over the throne. Armenia switched hands several times, and even experienced direct Roman and Persian occupations. In 387 AD, the country was officially divided between the Byzantine and Sassanid empires.
Christianity: 301 AD
A key moment came when Tiridates III made Christianity the official state religion in 301 AD-making Armenia the first nation to do so. The Armenian Apostolic Church soon followed, guiding national culture. Mesrop Mashtots’ invention of the Armenian alphabet in 405 AD helped spread Christian literature and education, starting a cultural “Golden Age.”
Arsacid dynasty and foreign attacks
The Arsacid dynasty (53-428 AD) kept Armenia as a buffer between powerful neighbors. They faced repeated interference and invasions. With the end of this dynasty in 428 AD, Armenia came under Persian rule and lost its independence for several centuries.
Arabs and Bagratid revival: 7th-11th centuries
Arab armies invaded Armenia in 639 AD, putting the region under Muslim control. Despite these hardships, Armenian nobles eventually secured some autonomy and, by the 9th century, the Bagratid family restored the Armenian kingdom. Ani, under the Bagratids, flourished but was eventually lost to invaders like the Seljuk Turks.
Seljuk, Mongol, and later foreign rule
After the Seljuks took over in the 11th century, Armenia went through more than two centuries of Turkish, Mongol, and Turkoman domination. The Mongols devastated the population, and later, various Turkic tribes ruled the area. These events weakened Armenian society and led to many people leaving for other regions.
Cilician Armenia: 12th-14th centuries
Key dynasties like the Rubenids established the Armenian Principality of Cilicia in 1078 AD, which became a kingdom in 1198 AD. The Cilician kingdom lasted until 1375 AD. It played an important part in Crusader and European politics and acted as a center of Armenian culture in exile.
Ottoman and Persian domination: early modern period
From the 16th century, Armenia’s territories became battlegrounds between Persia and the Ottoman Empire. Wars, forced migrations, and harsh rule changed life for Armenians. Still, the Armenian identity was held together through church and community institutions. Russian influence grew in the early 19th century after several wars with Persia and Turkey.
Russian conquest and reforms: 19th century
With the Russian takeover, Eastern Armenians experienced greater stability and modernization, though religious freedoms were sometimes restricted. In contrast, Armenians under Ottoman rule faced growing persecution, especially in the late 1800s and early 1900s, which set the stage for disaster in the next century.
Armenian Genocide and World War I: 1915-1921
During and after World War I, the Ottoman government carried out the Armenian Genocide, killing or deporting around 1.5 million Armenians. Many survivors settled in different parts of the world. Despite brave battles, the First Republic of Armenia collapsed after attacks from Turkey and the Red Army in 1920, leading to Soviet rule.
First Republic of Armenia: 1918-1920
The First Republic was born out of the chaos of World War I (1918). It was short-lived, facing constant threats and eventually being overtaken by Soviet and Turkish forces in 1920. Still, it laid important groundwork for later independence movements.
Soviet era: 1922-1991
Soviet Armenia was formed in the early 1920s, first as part of the Transcaucasian SFSR. The Soviet period brought industrial and educational progress, but also repression and political purges. The Armenian people marked their suffering and identity through acts like the 1965 Yerevan demonstrations. The Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991 made Armenian independence possible again.
Modern Republic of Armenia: since 1991
On September 21, 1991, Armenia declared independence from the Soviet Union. Levon Ter-Petrosyan was elected president, and the country began to build new political institutions. The early years were shaped by economic troubles and war over Nagorno-Karabakh. Political changes continue, including the 2018 Velvet Revolution and recurring conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh. Armenia is now an active member of several international groups and looks for further global cooperation.
Main dynasties and rulers in Armenian history
Urartian rulers
The Kingdom of Urartu was led by strong rulers like Aramé (the founder), Sarduri I (who built Tushpa/Van as the capital), and Argishtis I (who built Erebuni, the start of modern Yerevan). Urartian leaders developed advanced cities and infrastructure, and their influence continued long after the kingdom ended.
Orontid dynasty: early Armenian monarchy
After Urartu, the Orontid dynasty (started by Orontes I Sakavakyats) ruled Armenia from 570 BC. They were first Persian-appointed governors, then became independent. The Orontid period created key traditions of Armenian governance and paved the way for later dynasties.
Artaxiad dynasty: expansion and height
Founded in 190 BC by Artaxias I, the Artaxiad dynasty took Armenia to its greatest size under Tigranes the Great in the 1st century BC. Tigranes built a large empire and kept Armenia strong through military skill and careful diplomacy, preserving Armenian independence despite Roman pressure.
Arsacid dynasty: Christianity and statehood
The Arsacid dynasty (1-428 AD) helped Armenia become the first Christian state. Tiridates III’s conversion in 301 AD changed Armenian identity forever. The dynasty kept Armenia semi-independent between Rome and Persia until its end, when Armenia was divided by these larger neighbors.
Bagratid dynasty: a new golden age
The Bagratids gave Armenia fresh independence after centuries of foreign rules. Kings like Ashot I and Ashot III rebuilt Armenian society in the 9th-11th centuries, making Ani a center for trade, learning, and religion. The Bagratid era ended with new invasions and the rise of the Seljuks.
Cilician Armenian rulers
As Greater Armenia fell, Armenians built a new kingdom in Cilicia (southern Turkey). The Rubenid and Hethumid dynasties led this kingdom from the 12th to 14th centuries. Kings like Leon II (crowned in 1198 AD) helped Cilicia become an important power in Mediterranean politics before its fall to Mameluk forces in 1375 AD.
Modern leaders: from the First Republic to today
Leaders of the First Republic (1918-1920) like Alexander Khatisian tried to guide Armenia through war and change but faced deep challenges. Under Soviet rule, figures such as Alexander Miasnikyan shaped Armenia within the Soviet system. After 1991, presidents like Levon Ter-Petrosyan, Robert Kocharyan, Serzh Sargsyan, and current leader Nikol Pashinyan have steered the modern Republic through its trials and changes.
Frequently asked questions about the Armenian civilization timeline
How old is Armenian civilization?
Armenian civilization goes back to the earliest days of human presence in the region, with evidence from 325,000 years ago (stone tools). From around 6000 BC, organized settlements like those of the Shulaveri-Shomu culture began to appear. Artifacts like the ancient leather shoe from Areni-1 cave (3,500 BC) show an advanced society even in the Bronze Age. Armenian stories about Hayk and mentions of “Armani” in ancient texts suggest a national identity forming over 4,000 years ago. Kingdoms like Urartu (9th century BC) confirm organized political history. All this makes Armenia one of the world’s oldest continuous civilizations.
Why is Armenia known as the first Christian nation?
Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity as its state religion in 301 AD, under King Tiridates III. The main person behind this conversion was Saint Gregory the Illuminator. Before this, Armenian religion was mostly Zoroastrian. The decision to adopt Christianity changed the culture and government, making Armenian society unique compared to surrounding countries. The Armenian Church and the invention of a special national alphabet further built this Christian identity.
What was the impact of the Armenian Genocide?
The Armenian Genocide (1915-1923) was one of the first modern genocides. Over 1.5 million Armenians were killed or deported by the Ottoman government. As a result, most Armenians were forced to leave their ancient homelands, sparking large diaspora communities around the world. The trauma and ongoing denial of the genocide by Turkey remain deeply felt in Armenia and among Armenians worldwide. The event is marked every April 24 and continues to strongly influence Armenian identity and foreign policy.
How did Armenia gain independence in the 20th century?
Armenia’s modern independence has two main chapters. The first came after the Russian Empire collapsed during World War I, leading to the short-lived First Republic of Armenia in 1918. But this state fell by 1920 under pressure from Turkish and Soviet forces. Later, after nearly seventy years under Soviet rule, the independence movement returned. National protests and the weakening of the Soviet government allowed Armenia to declare independence on September 21, 1991. International recognition followed, and Armenia became a fully independent country for the first time since the Middle Ages.
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